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Phobia

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phobia (phobie) A [[phobia ]] is usually defined in [[psychiatry ]] as an extreme'''[[fear]]''' of a [[particular]] [[object]] (such as an [[animal]]) or a particular [[situation]] (such as leaving the home).
fear of Those who suffer from a particular phobia [[experience]] [[Anxiety]] if they [[encounter]] the phobic object (such as an animal) or a particular are placed in the feared situation (such , and develop 'avoidance strategies' so asto prevent this from happening.
leaving These avoidance strategies may become so elaborate that the home). Those who suffer from a phobia experience [[Anxietysubject]]'s [[life]] if theyis severely restricted.
encounter the phobic object or are placed in the feared situation, and develop---
[[Freud]]'avoidance strategies' so as s most important contribution to prevent this from happeningthe study of phobias concerned a young boy whom he dubbed Little [[Hans]]. These avoidance
strategies may become so elaborate that Shortly before his fifth birthday, Hans developed a violent fear of horses and became unwilling to go outdoors lest he encounter one in the subject's life is severely restrictedstreet.
In his [[case]] study of Hans, Freud's most important contribution distinguished between the initial onset of anxiety (which was not attached to any object) and the ensuing fear which was focused specifically on horses; only the latter constituted the study of phobias concerned aphobia proper.
young boy whom he dubbed Little Freud argued that the anxiety was the transformation of [[sexual]] excitement generated in Hans. Shortly before by his [[relationship]] with his fifth birthday[[mother]], and that the horses represented his [[father]] who Hansfeared would punish him.<ref>{{SF}} 1909b</ref>
developed a violent fear of horses and became unwilling to go outdoors lest he---
encounter one [[Lacan]], in his [[seminar]] of 1956-7, offers a detailed [[reading]] of the street. In his case study of [[Little Hans]], Freud distinguishedand proposes his own view of phobia.
Following Freud, he stresses the [[difference]] between phobia and anxiety: anxiety appears first, and the phobia is a defensive [[formation]] which turns the initial onset of anxiety (which was not attached to any into fear by focusing it on a specific object) and.<ref>{{S4}} pp. 207, 400</ref>
However, rather than [[identifying]] the ensuing fear which was focused specifically on horses; only phobic object as a [[representative]] of the latterfather, as Freud does, Lacan argues that the fundamental characteristic of the phobic object is that it does not simply [[represent]] one person but represents different [[people]] in turn.<ref>{{S4}} pp. 283-8</ref>
constituted Lacan points out the extremely diverse ways in which Hans describes the feared horse at different moments of his phobia proper; for example, at one point Hans is afraid that a horse will bite him and at [[another]] [[moment]] that a horse will fall down. Freud argued that the anxiety was the transfor<ref>{{S4}} p. 305-6</ref>
mation At each of sexual excitement generated these different moments, Lacan argues, the horse represents a different person in Hans by his relationship with his's life.<ref>{{S4}} p. 307</ref>
mother, The horse thus functions not as the equivalent of a sole [[signified]] but as a [[signifier]] which has no univocal [[sense]] and that the horses represented his father who Hans feared wouldis [[displaced]] onto different signifieds in turn<ref>{{S4}} p. 288</ref>
punish him (Freud, 1909b).---
Lacan, in argues that Hans develops the horse phobia because his seminar [[Real]] father fails to intervene as the [[agent]] of 1956-7[[castration]], offers a detailed reading of which is his proper [[role]] in the case of[[Oedipus Complex]].<ref>{{S4}} p. 212</ref>
Little When his [[sexuality]] begins to make itself felt in [[infantile]] [[masturbation]], the [[preoedipal]] [[triangle]] (mother-[[child]]-[[Imaginary]] [[phallus]]) is transformed from [[being]] Hans, and proposes his own view 's source of phobia[[enjoyment]] into something that provokes anxiety in him. Following Freud, he stresses
The [[intervention]] of the difference between phobia and anxiety: [[Real]] father would have saved Hans from this anxiety appears firstby [[Symbolic]]ally [[castrating]] him, and but in the [[absence]] of this intervention Hans is [[forced]] to find a [[substitute]] in thephobia.
The phobia is a defensive formation which turns functions by using an [[Imaginary]] object (the horse) to reorganise the [[Symbolic]] [[world]] of Hans and thus [[help]] him to make the passage from the anxiety into fear by focusing[[Imaginary]] to the [[Symbolic]] [[order]]<ref>{{S4}} pp. 230, 245-6, 284</ref>
Far from being a purely [[negative]] phenomenon, then, a phobia makes a [[traumatic]] situation thinkable, livable, by introducing a [[symbolic]] [[dimension]], even if it on is only a specific object (provisional solution.<ref>{{S4, 207, 400)}} p. However, rather than identifying the82</ref>
phobic object as a representative of the father, as Freud does, Lacan argues that the fundamental characteristic of the phobic object is that it does not simply represent one person but represents different people in turn (S4, 283-8). Lacan points out the extremely diverse ways in which Hans describes the feared horse at different moments of his phobia; for example, at one point Hans is afraid that a horse will bite him and at another moment that a horse will fall down (S4, 305-6). At each of these different moments, Lacan argues, the horse represents a different person in Hans's life (S4, 307). The horse thus functions not as the equivalent of a sole signified but as a signifier which has no univocal sense and is displaced onto different signifieds in turn (S4, 288).-
Lacan argues that Hans develops the horse phobia because his [[Real]] father fails to intervene as the agent of castration, which The phobic object is his proper role in the OEDIPUS COMPLEx (S4, 212). When his sexuality begins to make itself felt in infantile masturbation, the preoedipal triangle (mother-child-thus an [[Imaginary]] phallus) is transformed from being Hans's source of enjoyment into something that provokes anxiety in him. The intervention of the [[Real]] father would have saved Hans from this anxiety by [[Symbolic]]ally castrating him, but in the absence of this intervention Hans element which is forced able to find function as a substitute in the phobia. The phobia functions signifier by using an [[Imaginary]] object (the horse) being used to reorganise represent every possible element in the [[Symbolic]] subject's world of Hans and thus help him to make the passage from the [[Imaginary]] to the [[Symbolic]] order (S4, 230, 245-6, 284). Far from being a purely negative phenomenon, then, a phobia makes a traumatic situation thinkable, livable, by introducing a [[Symbolic]] dimension, even if it is only a provisional solution (S4, 82).
The phobic object is thus an [[Imaginary]] element which is able to function as a signifier by being used to represent every possible element in the subject's world. For Hans, the horse represents at different moments his father, his mother, his little sister, his friends, himself, and many other things besides (S4, 307). In the process of developing all the permutations possible around 'the signifying crystal of his phobia', little Hans was able to exhaust all the impossibilities that blocked his passage from the [[Imaginaryother]] to the [[Symbolic]] and thus find a solution to the impossible by recourse to a signifying equation (E, 168)things besides. In other words, a phobia plays exactly the same role which Claude LÈvi-Strauss assigns to myths, only on the level of the individual rather than of society. What is important in the myth, argues LÈvi-Strauss, is not any 'natural' or 'archetal' meaning of the isolated elements which make it up, but the way they are combined and re-combined in such a way that while the elements change position, the relations between the positions are immutable (LÈvi-Strauss, 1955). This repeated re-combination of the same elements allows an impossible situation to be faced up to by articulating in turn all the different forms of its impossibility (<ref>{{S4, 330)}} p.307</ref>
What are In the practical consequences [[process]] of Lacandeveloping all the permutations possible around 's theory in the treatment signifying crystal of subjects who suffer from phobias? Rather than simply desensitising the subject (as in behavioural therapy), or simply providing an explanation of the phobic object (e.g. his phobia'the horse is your father'), the treatment should aim at helping the subject little Hans was able to work through exhaust all the various permutations involving impossibilities that blocked his passage from the phobic signifier. By helping the subject [[Imaginary]] to develop the individual myth in accordance with its own laws, the treatment enables him finally to exhaust all the possible combinations of signifying elements [[Symbolic]] and thus find a solution to dissolve the phobia (S4, 402)[[impossible]] by recourse to a signifying equation.<ref>{{E}} p.168</ref>
(It should be borne in mind that Lacan's discussion of In other [[words]], a phobia plays exactly the case of Little Hans same role which Claude LÈvi-[[Strauss]] assigns to [[myths]], only explicitly addresses on the question level of childhood phobias, and leaves open the question [[individual]] rather than of whether these remarks also apply to adult phobias[[society]].)
As Freud himself noted in his case study of Little Hans, phobias had not previously been assigned any definite position What is important in psychiatric nosographies. He attempted to remedy this uncertainty surrounding the classification of phobia[[myth]], but his proposed solution is prey to a certain ambiguity. On the one hand, since phobic symptoms can be found among both neurotic and psychotic subjects, Freud argued that phobias could not be regarded as an 'independent patholoargues [[Lévi- gical process' (FreudStrauss]], 1909b: SE X, l15). On the other hand, in the same work Freud did isolate a particular form of neurosis whose central symptom is a phobia. Freud called this new diagnostic category not any 'anxiety hysteria[[natural]]' in order to distinguish it from or 'conversion hysteriaarchetal' (which Freud had previously referred to simply as 'hysteria'). Freud's remarks are thus ambiguous, implying that phobia can be both a symptom and an underlying clinical entity.The same ambiguity is repeated in Lacan's works, where the question is rephrased in terms of whether phobia is a symptom or a [[Structuremeaning]]. Usuallyof the isolated elements which make it up, Lacan distinguishes only two neurotic structures (hysteria but the way they are combined and obsessional neurosis), and describes phobia as a symptom rather than a structure (S4, 285). However, there are also points re-combined in Lacan's work where he lists phobia as such a third form of neurosis in addition to hysteria and obsessional neurosis, thus implying way that there is a phobic structure (e.g. E, 321); in 1961, for example, he describes phobia as 'while the most radical form of neurosis' (S8, 425). The question is not resolved until the seminar of 1968-9, where Lacan states that One cannot see in it elements [[phobiachange]] a clinical entity but rather a revolving junction [plaque tournante[position]], something that must be elucidated in its the relations with that towards which it usually tends, namely between the two great orders of neurosis, hysteria and obsessionality, and also the junction which it [[Real]]ises with perversionpositions are immutable. (Lacan, 1968<ref>Lévi-9, quoted in Chemama, 1993: 210)Strauss. 1955</ref>
Thus phobia is not, according to Lacan, a clinical structure on This repeated re-combination of the same level as hysteria and obsessional neurosis, but a gateway which can lead elements allows an impossible situation to either of them and which also has certain connections with the perverse structure. The link with perversion can be seen faced up to by articulating in turn all the similarities between the fetish and the phobic object, both different forms of which are its [[Symbolicimpossibility]] substitutes for a missing element and both of which serve to structure the surrounding world. Furthermore, both phobia and perversion arise from difficulties in the passage from the [[Imaginary]] preoedipal triangle to the [[Symbolic]] Oedipal quaternary<ref>{{S4}} p.330</ref>
---
What are the [[practical]] consequences of Lacan's [[theory]] in the [[treatment]] of [[subjects]] who suffer from phobias? Rather than simply desensitising the subject (as in behavioural [[therapy]]), or simply providing an explanation of the phobic object (e.g. 'the horse is your father'), the treatment should aim at helping the subject to [[work]] through all the various permutations involving the phobic signifier.
By helping the subject to develop the individual myth in accordance with its own laws, the treatment enables him finally to exhaust all the possible combinations of signifying elements and thus to dissolve the phobia.<ref>{{S4}} p. 402</ref>
---
phobia (phobieIt should be borne in [[mind]] that Lacan's [[discussion]] of the case of Little Hans only explicitly addresses the question of [[childhood]] phobias, and leaves open the question of whether these remarks also apply to [[adult]] phobias.) A phobia is usually defined in psychiatry as an extreme
fear of a particular object (such as an animal) or a particular situation (such as---
leaving the home). Those who suffer from a phobia experience As Freud himself noted in his case study of Little Hans, phobias had not previously been assigned any definite position in [[Anxietypsychiatric]] if theynosographies.
encounter He attempted to remedy this uncertainty surrounding the phobic object or are placed in the feared situationclassification of phobia, and developbut his proposed solution is prey to a certain ambiguity.
On the one hand, since phobic [[symptoms]] can be found among both [[neurotic]] and [[psychotic]] subjects, Freud argued that phobias could not be regarded as an 'avoidance strategiesindependent pathological process' so as to prevent this from happening. These avoidance<ref>Freud, 1909b: SE X, l15</ref>
strategies may become so elaborate that On the subject's life other hand, in the same work Freud did isolate a particular [[form]] of [[neurosis]] whose central [[symptom]] is severely restricteda phobia.
Freudcalled this new diagnostic [[category]] 's most important contribution anxiety [[hysteria]]' in order to the study of phobias concerned adistinguish it from 'conversion hysteria' (which Freud had previously referred to simply as 'hysteria').
young boy whom he dubbed Little HansFreud's remarks are thus ambiguous, implying that phobia can be both a symptom and an underlying [[clinical]] entity. Shortly before his fifth birthday, Hans
developed The same ambiguity is repeated in Lacan's works, where the question is rephrased in [[terms]] of whether phobia is a violent fear of horses and became unwilling to go outdoors lest hesymptom or a [[structure]].
encounter one in the streetUsually, Lacan distinguishes only two neurotic [[structures]] (hysteria and [[obsessional]] neurosis), and describes phobia as a symptom rather than a structure.<ref>{{S4}} p. In his case study of Hans, Freud distinguished285</ref>
between the initial onset However, there are also points in Lacan's work where he lists phobia as a [[third]] form of anxiety (which was not attached neurosis in addition to any object) hysteria and[[obsessional neurosis]], thus implying that there is a phobic structure;<ref>{{E}} p. 321</ref>; in 1961, for example, he describes phobia as "the most radical form of neurosis."<ref>{{S8}} p. 425</ref>
The question is not resolved until the ensuing fear seminar of [[1968]]-9, where Lacan states that One cannot see in it [phobia] a clinical entity but rather a revolving junction [plaque tournante], something that must be elucidated in its relations withthat towards which was focused specifically on horses; only it usually tends, namely the lattertwo great [[orders]] of neurosis, hysteria and obsessionality, and also the junction which it realises with [[perversion]].<ref>{{JL}} 1968-9</ref>
constituted the phobia proper. Freud argued that the anxiety was the transfor---
mation Thus phobia is not, according to Lacan, a [[clinical structure]] on the same level as hysteria and obsessional neurosis, but a gateway which can lead to either of sexual excitement generated in Hans by his relationship [[them]] and which also has certain connections with histhe [[perverse]] structure.
motherThe link with perversion can be seen in the similarities between the [[fetish]] and the phobic object, both of which are [[symbolic]] substitutes for a [[missing]] element and that both of which serve to structure the horses represented his father who Hans feared wouldsurrounding world.
punish him (FreudFurthermore, 1909b)both phobia and perversion arise from difficulties in the passage from the [[imaginary]] preoedipal triangle to the [[symbolic]] [[Oedipal]] [[quaternary]].
Lacan, in his seminar of 1956-7, offers a detailed reading of the case of
    influence of these lectures on his work, especially his earlier work, is immense, and whenever Lacan refers to Hegel it is KojËve's reading of Hegel that he has in mind. From Hegel Lacan takes (among other things) an emphasis on dialectical modes of thought, the concept of the [[Beautiful Soul]], the dialectic of the [[Master]] and the slave, and a distinction between animal and human [[Desire]].    e Heidegger Lacan established a personal friendship with Heidegger, visiting him and translating some of his works. Heidegger's influence on Lacan's work can be seen in Lacan's metaphysical discussions of [[Being]], and in the distinction between full [[Speech]] and empty speech.  These are only the philosophers to whom Lacan refers most frequently; he also discusses the work of many other philosophers such as St Augustine, Spinoza, Sartre, and others.  Lacan's work engages with many philosophical schools and areas of enquiry. In his early work he shows a bent towards phenomenology, even presenting a 'phenomenological description of the psychoanalytic experience' in 1936 (Ec, 82-5), but he later becomes quite opposed to phenomenology, and in 1964 presents a critique of Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception (Sll, 71-6). Insofar as psychoanalysis engages with ontological questions, Lacan aligns psychoanalysis with [[Materialism]], ag3ÃDSt all forms of idealism. Lacan also engages with epistemology and the philosophy of [[Science]], where his constant approach is rationalist rather than empiricist.  Further information on Lacan's relationship with philosophy is provided in Juranville (1984), Macey (1988: ch. 4), Ragland-Sullivan (1986) and Samuels (1993).    == References ==<div style="font-size:11px" class="references-small">
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